Aging Seniors Essay
Description – Section II
& Doing the Literature Review
The next step to researching the project topic is to engage in a thorough review of the published
literature pertaining to the learners chosen area of investigation.
The review of the literature serves to provide a conceptual framework by which the learner can
thoroughly understand the chosen topic of study. The theoretical base serves to provide definition,
orientation, and direction to the project being undertaken.
Rationale for the Literature Review
There are four primary reasons why a thorough literature review is part of a well-done research
project. First, it is essential to review past studies so that the current investigation can be set in its
appropriate context. Reviewing the literature helps the learner understand the true breadth of the
topic area intended to study. Although the learner’s study may eventually focus on a narrow slice of
the larger issue, the learner needs to investigate how that narrow slice fits into its broader context.
Many related studies can provide insight into the learner’s study; those studies need to be identified
and critiqued. Consider the following questions:
1. What studies on this topic have been done previously?
2. What were the findings of those studies?
3. In what ways were the previous works similar to each other?
4. How did the previous studies differ from each other?
5. In what ways are those studies similar to or different from the one you are undertaking?
6. How can each of the previous studies help in understanding the topic?
All research builds on the shoulders of past studies. To adequately understand, therefore, the issues
underlying the learner’s proposed project, one must comprehend the historical development of past
research on the topic. Reviewing past findings is essential in order to identify the major issues (or
research threads) surrounding the topic and to determine the current status of information. If the
learner wishes to be conversant with others investigating the topic, one must understand both the
historical perspective and the current status.
The literature review assists in knowing and understanding the terminology, techniques, and
procedures that have been used to investigate the topic. Often, the learner can find helpful hints and
avoid many pitfalls in their own research by knowing the experience of other researchers.
Most persons do not make a career of doing research. Rather, they are primarily consumers of
research information and findings. The final reason, then, for reviewing the literature is to teach one
to be a good research consumer. The process of becoming skilled at “asking the right questions”
depends upon an ability and skill to adequately locate, critique, and evaluate published results.
Process of Critiquing Research
Many pieces of information are conveyed in a published article. There are, therefore, many aspects
to be critiqued. When performing a review of the literature, it is necessary to determine if the articles
reviewed are relevant and useful for your project. The outline given below assists the learner with
determining the soundness of the material being reviewed and should help the learner to focus on
the relevance it has (or doesn’t have) for the study. Not all of the questions listed will be relevant for
every article. However, this listing gives an idea of the types of questions that need to be asked when
critically examining an article for its relevance and content.
I. PURPOSES (yours and the author’s)
A. Find the author’s hypothesis.
• Is it relevant to the purpose of his study?
• Is it relevant to the purpose of your project?
B. Was more than one hypothesis tested?
C. Did the author actually test the stated hypothesis?
D. What ideas presented represented assumptions, and which were to be tested?
E. Did the author give practical significance of the research? Is the research basic or
applied?
F. Did the author give a careful explanation of known facts and existing knowledge, which
has a bearing on the problem at hand?
G. How sound is the logic that underlies the presentation of relevant facts and concepts
underlying the problem? What evidence has been minimized and/or ignored by the
author?
H. What is the scope of the author’s research? Is it sufficiently narrow without being
irrelevant?
I. Is the review of the literature relevant?
J. Does the author give a rationale or theoretical framework for the study based on the
research studies cited?
K. Does the author give a clear statement of the assumptions underlying the approach to
the problem being investigated?
II. VARIABLES
A. Does the author identify the independent and dependent variable(s)? If more than one,
are all clearly specified?
B. What are the operational definitions of each variable? How adequate and appropriate are
the definitions for the author’s purpose?
C. How many and what levels of the independent variables are used?
D. Did the author hold to the definitions as given, i.e. is the usage consistent throughout the
research?
E. When stating generalizations & conclusions, are the limits of the sampling procedures
and measurement techniques kept in mind?
F. Are any predictions made logically consistent with the hypotheses stated? Is the logic
sound?
G. Is paradigm, schematic model, flow chart, etc. used appropriately? Does hypothesis
follow from the model presented?
H. Does the author acknowledge threats to the internal and external validity of the
experimental design employed?
I. Does the author provide adequate information for you to make a judgment concerning
the appropriateness of the test or measurement scale used? That is, is information given
concerning the reliability, validity, & standardization of the instrument?
J. Does the author give a sufficient description of the procedures used in data collection,
i.e. when, where, and how data was obtained?
K. Does the author make a clear statement concerning the relationship between the
research hypothesis and the statistical hypothesis?
L. Did the author conduct a pilot study? If so, what was the outcome? Were any
modifications in procedure made as a result of the pilot?
M. Is the description of data collection clear enough so that the study could be replicated?
N. Does the author give a statement of the assumptions underlying the methodology
employed (e.g. adequacy of reliability & validity of measures, representativeness of the
sample, assumptions of statistical test, etc.?
III. SAMPLING PROCEDURES
A. Is the sample representative of the population of interest?
B. Is the population of interest clearly defined?
C. Does the author state the methods by which the subjects were selected?
D. Do the sampling techniques logically follow from the population that has been defined?
E. What characteristics of the sample does the author report? Are some aspects of interest
to you omitted from the sample?
F. Does the author give information concerning selective dropouts?
IV. DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION
A. Descriptive information
1. Note the central tendency & deviation of the groups measured.
2. Are the distributions skewed?
3. How different are the dispersions?
4. How much overlap among the groups?
5. How many observations were there in each group?
B. Inferential information
1. Is the statistical test appropriate for the available data?
2. Do the data gathered, and the statistical test used, allow one to answer the question
of interest?
3. What conditioning variables may be present? What steps were taken to eliminate
the effect of those variables?
4. Does the author maintain objectivity and refrain from speculation?
5. Is the analysis consistent with and supported by known facts?
6. Does the author engage in overgeneralizations and/or make sweeping statements
that go beyond the data at hand?
7. How do the findings of this research relate to the findings of the studies previously
cited by the author?
8. Does the author report both confirming AND disconfirming evidence objectively
and with minimal bias?
9. Does the author honestly acknowledge and openly discuss weaknesses in the data?
10. Is there a clear distinction made between facts and inferences? Between analysis
and interpretation?
11. Does the author make appropriate use of tables, figures, charts, graphs, etc.? Are
these aids clearly understandable?
12. Does the author address contradictions, inconsistencies, and misleading elements?
V. CONCLUSIONS
A. Are the conclusions drawn consistent with the statistical analysis and the sampling
technique used?
B. Were any conclusions drawn that are not warranted by the data presented?
C. Could you draw other conclusions using the same data?
D. Are the conclusions justified and supported by the facts of the research?
E. Do the conclusions drawn lead to new questions that can be set forth for research?
F. Does the author set forth any recommendations for implementing research findings?
The purpose of the literature review is for the learner to set the research plan in the context of
previous research. The learner’s work should be a logical extension of what has already been done,
and should build upon this foundation. This research, no matter what it is, is based on some other
research that was done earlier.
To begin Section II, the learner will conduct “library research” to gather background information.
This background research is not sufficient for the entire project, but is only the first step. What the
learner will end up with is NOT a “term paper” based entirely on library research, but a research
project that includes library research as part of the steps to a successful Naturalistic observation
Field Experience. Accessing the online example is recommended to assist with this.
Finding References
Begin by conducting a computer-based search of databases and the Internet to find scholarly
researched articles about the research topic. These scholarly articles should:
• Be published within the past five (5) years;
• Be published in a respected (preferably “peer-reviewed”) research journal;
• Describe research, not a position.
The learner may supplement the search with books, especially edited books in which each chapter is
contributed by a different expert in the field. Avoid non-scholarly, single-author books intended for
the popular market. In fact, avoid anything that would be purchased at a commercial retailer. If it is
on their shelves, it’s not likely to be very scholarly. By definition, anything with commercial value
(such as books and magazines sold to the general market) has been written to increase its
commercial value, not to present an unbiased and research-based view of data.
By the same token, the learner must be wary of Internet web pages intended for casual viewers.
There is much excellent, scholarly material on-line, but to get to it the learner must wade past
material presented for the general market. Also, do not use textbooks or the encyclopedia except for
the most specific factual information.
Primary source research is acceptable and, in fact, encouraged. If you can question a known expert
in your topic and receive a reply, you may use that reply in your Review of Literature.
Accumulate a minimum of twelve (12) scholarly sourced articles upon which to base the review of
literature (but know that as many as 20 to 30 articles may need to be pulled in order to finally
settle on 12 scholarly and useable sources). If there is controversy surrounding the research
topic, make sure that the selection of articles represents both sides. Be sure to record complete
bibliographic information about each article, including authors’ names, the name of the article, the
journal or book in which it is published, volume number, page numbers, etc. If the intention is to
use a direct quote from an article, the learner must supply the precise page upon which it appears.
Referencing APA 5th edition throughout the paper is required (see provided: Pocket Guide
to APA Style text for specific examples and assistance).
Using the Library On-Line
One of the best advances in the past several years is the ability to conduct scholarly research from
one’s home computer, using the University’s library database system. To do this, go to
www.snu.edu and follow the links to the library and to the various databases. All of this
information was made available to you during the library night provided in Module 1.
The learner must be prepared to spend some time in both familiarizing and increasing capabilities
when using the on-line library and performing the actual research process. The learner must plan
to devote a significant amount of time to doing the background research for this part of the
project.
The learner may be able to download full-text articles that are scholarly and research-based, but may
also have to request that articles be located by the librarians. This takes a little time, so the learner is
encouraged not to delay in beginning the research process. One may also find excellent articles using
a good search engine, such as Google Scholar or Kartoo. Just be sure to find scholarly articles, not sites
intended for the general public.
Can’t Find Anything on the Project Topic?
This is a common problem but it is a problem of thinking, not a problem with sources. If the learner
feels that “there must be something out there,” then the problem may be the search term being used
to describe the topic. Play around with this by using a much broader term than what has been used
to see what comes up. While the learner may not find exactly they are looking for, hints may be
displayed on sources about “what people call this” or search engine terms displayed.
It may be that the learner’s topic is so new or unique that no one has written anything on it yet. In
that case, identify two elements or factors that come together in the research project and conduct
background research on those elements. Know that there IS information on the selected topic, it
just may take some creative thinking to locate it. This is also an area where SNU librarians can be of
help!
Staying Organized
Follow these steps:
1. Once the purpose statement is approved by the instructor, copy onto a piece of paper and
post it where you can see it. During the research process, the reader can have a tendency to
lose site of the focus, posting the purpose statement helps to keep the researcher grounded.
2. Read through the articles. Take note of what the authors’ main points are – what are they
trying to say?
3. Keep track of bibliographic information – this is important! If the learner finds good quotes or
information to paraphrase, be sure to note the page number of the article on which it appears.
Also, look at the bibliographic information used for an article that you have pulled. This
sometimes provides additional “research pearls” for the learner to investigate further.
4. Develop a system to organize the research obtained whether by use of a color coding system,
filing system, binder with tabs, etc. This is key to maximizing time when doing research.
5. Save, save, save your project document in many different capacities. This includes during
the time you are actually composing the document. Electrical outages, power surges, and
computer crashes create havoc and destroy time spent on the project.
6. Create a “dump file” within your computer folders. Sometimes the researcher writes a
paragraph or two and then determines that it does not quite fit. Don’t cut and delete the
information, cut and paste it into the “dump file” to search later for a better fit within the
project document.
7. Avoid researching “a little here and a little there.” Hours of uninterrupted time are crucial to
supporting the depth of thought necessary to build a project such as this.
Writing Section II-Literature Review
Use of 1 inch margins around the paper, 12 font either Arial or Times New Roman, and a total of
10—12 typed written pages are expected for Section II. Begin this section by centering and titling
SECTION II. Begin the section by including 2-4 paragraphs for a global opening to the literature
review and include a transition paragraph which provides to the reader an overview of the 4 to 5
sub-topics (research threads) covered in the chapter in the order in which they were written within
the paper. Remember to use transition sentences when leading in to each sub topic- area. Provide a
Conclusion section that includes a nice wrap-up paragraph of the literature reviewed with a restatement
of the purpose statement (2-3 paragraphs in length). The continued use of headers and
page numbers must be used as noted in the APA Handbook. This section is also written in third
person and past tense.
Writing the Review of the Literature
The Review of Literature is a topical essay, NOT a series of article critiques. It is NOT an
annotated bibliography. It is helpful to construct a working outline before writing the Review, so the
topics addressed fall in logical order. Information about each topic in the learner’s outline may come
from more than one article, and each article may contribute to writing about several outline topics. It
is the learner’s task to decide what the reader needs to know in order to understand the research
area. The learner must keep in mind what each of the articles has to contribute to this understanding
and how to arrange bits and pieces from these various articles in a logical order so that, at the end,
the reader will have the important background information. There is no magical short cut to writing
the Review of Literature and it is not a simple task!
Four points are important:
1. In the Review of Literature, the learner describes what others have found. The learner does
not editorialize or contribute opinions. This is the time for just the facts.
2. Every idea presented in the Review must be attributed to someone, by a citation that appears
in parentheses and includes the author’s name and the publication date of the article, as in
(Brown, Smith & Thomas, 1997). List all authors (and the date) when citing a work for the
first time. Thereafter, a work with three or more authors may be listed as (Brown, et al, 1997).
Again, all ideas in the Review of Literature must be attributed to someone other than the
learner.
3. There is no such thing as “common knowledge.” Do not presume that since “everyone knows
television violence is bad” that this does not need to be supported. Citations are very
important.
4. Every citation made in the text of the Literature Review must appear in full in a reference list
at the end of the paper. No references may appear in the list if they are not cited in the paper.
The Review of Literature will take several pages to write which is a large investment of the learner’s
time. Depending on the topic, this section of the project is at least 10 – 12 pages in length with 4 to
5 subheadings that reflect the research threads determined.
Constructing a Working Outline
The learner may want to consider constructing a working outline of the Review of Literature. To do
this, think about the research topic, and consider what a reasonable person would need to know to
understand the topic. (Refer to: Chapter 2 Research Threads/Outline Hints and Tips)
When assembling these ideas from the reading, slot these ideas into the items on the working
outline. Notice that a particular article might have things to say about more than one outline item. In
this way, the learner will construct a topical essay, in which the topics (outline items) drive the
narrative, not an annotated bibliography, in which articles are addressed one after the other, with no
relationship to the outline.
It is usually a good idea to ask someone else to read the Review of Literature after the learner has
put together a first draft and before submitting to the instructor. Someone unfamiliar with the topic
will be able to point out confusions, missing but necessary explanations, and odd organization of
information that the learner, who has been so close to this task, may not be able to see.
Using APA Style
APA format is required when writing the Naturalistic Observation Field Experience research
component. Using the provided text, Pocket Guide to APA Style by Robert Perrin is required. Another
online source to access to assist the learner with APA is
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
Section II-Grading Rubric (FSG)
Literature Review
Criteria Comments Points
Possible
Points
Awarded
Running head, page number sequence, correct margins 2
Writer followed the correct format of the title for Section II, global
opening, subtopic (research thread) titles, and conclusionary
paragraphs
2
Writer included 2-4 paragraphs for a global opening to the literature
review. This global opening included a transition paragraph which
provided an overview to the reader of the sub-topics (research
threads) covered in the chapter in the order in which they were
written within the paper
6
The first sub-topic area provided content relevant to the overall
research focus. Content was weaved together using the writer’s
words and not just a reproduction of the research. Length was
about 2 to 2 1/2 pages in length
12
Transition sentence used led logically in to sub-topic two 1
The second sub-topic area provided content relevant to the overall
research focus. Content was weaved together using the writer’s
words and not just a reproduction of the research. Length was
about 2 to 2 1/2 pages in length
12
Transition sentence used led logically in to sub-topic three 1
The third sub-topic area provided content relevant to the overall
research focus. Content was weaved together using the writer’s
words and not just a reproduction of the research. Length was
about 2 to 2 1/2 pages in length
12
Transition sentence used led logically in to sub-topic four 1
The fourth sub-topic area provided content relevant to the overall
research focus. Content was weaved together using the writer’s
words and not just a reproduction of the research. Length was
about 2 to 2 1/2 pages in length
12
The conclusion paragraph included a nice wrap-up paragraph of the
literature reviewed with a re-statement of the purpose statement (2-
3 paragraphs in length)
5
APA in-text citations were correct format for all quoted or
paraphrased sources as indicated in the APA Handbook
4
All in-text citations corresponded to the reference list 2
The majority of references cited were scholarly sources and was
research from the past 5 years. A minimum of 12 references were
cited on the reference page
8
APA citation of references was done correctly and followed the
format indicated in the APA Handbook
3
Writer used 12 font either Times New Roman or Arial 2
Writer used THIRD PERSON and PAST TENSE throughout the
entire chapter
3
Writer used correct spelling, grammar, sentence structures,
punctuation, and word usage (remember-no jargon)
8
Chapter 2 was about 10-12 pages in length 4
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