\nInstructions:
\n? You are expected to provide answers for every question. You are encouraged to show
\nall of your work so that marks can be awarded for partially correct answers.
\n? Although you are encouraged to collaborate with your classmates, each of you is
\nexpected to submit a separate and distinct assignment – a point that will require
\nacknowledgement upon submission.
\nEarth?s present atmosphere is theorized to have evolved from one based upon outgassing of
\nthe planet?s interior.
\nConsider that period in Earth?s history when outgassed water vapour has condensed to form a
\nsignificant ocean. During this same period, suppose that there are only two mechanisms for
\nremoving CO2
\n from Earth?s atmosphere – namely photosynthesis and dissolution. (Note: CO2
\nis
\ndissolved into water through the process of dissolution.)
\n1. Given that the metal Calcium Oxide (CaO) is abundant in Earth?s crust, and reacts with
\nCO2
\n according to the following chemical reaction
\nCaO(s) + CO2
\n(g) ? CaCO3
\n(s),
\nprovide a process-flow representation for this mechanism that removes CO2
\nfrom Earth?s
\nearly atmosphere. (Note: CaCO3
\nforms as a precipitate? – i.e., a solid that forms from a
\nsolution.) [3 marks]
\n2. Suppose the product of the mineral carbonation (carbonation is the process of dissolving
\ncarbon dioxide in liquid) reaction detailed in Question 1 above:
\na. Precipitates at a rate of 2 cm\/yr. How long will it take for a 0.5 m layer to
\naccumulate? [3 marks]
\nb. Produces sediment that is compacted to a 4.5:1 ratio during lithification process –
\ne.g., due to burial pressure. Determine the resulting thickness of the originally 0.5
\nm layer accumulated in Question 2(a). [3 marks]
\nc. Produces spheres of CaCO3 with a radius of 2 mm.
\ni. Determine the corresponding terminal velocity (in m\/s) of these spheres in
\nwater from v?T? ? ( 151 r )?
\n??
\n, where r is the radius in m. [3 marks]
\nii. Assuming and ocean depth of 2 km for an off-shore operation, calculate
\n? L. I. Lumb – Sharing prohibited. Violators subject to legal and\/or academic consequences. 1
\nthe settling time – i.e., the time it takes each of the spheres to descend
\nthrough the ocean and settle out as sediment. [2 marks]
\n3. After the process of lithification completes, what is the resulting class and type of
\nsedimentary rock? Obtain a photograph of a representative sample of this rock. (Note:
\nPlease attempt to provide an original photo. If you are unable to do so, please indicate
\nyour source. Note that you may be audited to prove originality.) [4 marks + 2 bonus
\nmarks for an original photo.]
\n4. Enhance your Question 1 process-flow diagram to account for Question 3. [3 marks]
\nOver the past 400,000 years, but excluding the past 200 years, paleoclimatological evidence
\nsuggests that the concentration of CO2
\n, i.e., [CO2
\n], has barely exceeded 300 ppm.
\n5. Calculate the percentage reduction in the [CO2
\n] from volcanic-outgassing levels to this
\npeak value of 300 ppm. (Note: Volcanic-outgassing levels for CO2 are provided in the
\n?Appendix? below.) [3 marks]
\nInspired by the results of Question 4, an interdisciplinary team undertakes to geoengineer the
\nsequestration of CO2
\n through very-large-scale mineral carbonation (VeLaMiCarb).
\n(Geoengineering is a direct manipulation of the Earth system.) The VeLaMiCarb team?s
\napproach includes isolating the resulting precipitate (i.e., CaCO3
\n(s)), and ultimately burying it in
\nunderground vaults impermeable to groundwater.
\n6. Obtain [CO2
\n] versus time data for the past 5 years from the Mauna Loa Observatory.
\n(Note that you can download a high-quality version of this graphical plot in various
\nformats. See ?Resources? below for access information.) [2 marks]
\n7. Using the graphical plot acquired in Question 6:
\na. Estimate the current [CO2
\n] in ppm. [1 mark]
\nb. Estimate the annual increase in the [CO2
\n]. Include an annotated version of the
\nplot in your solution that illustrates how this rate was calculated. [5 marks]
\n8. Based on your answer to Question 7(b), determine how long it will take the current value
\nof [CO2
\n] to double. (This will subsequently be referred to as the ?2x[CO2
\n] climate
\nscenario?.) [3 marks]
\n9. Suppose the EBCM-determined energy, E2CO2, associated with this doubling of the
\n1
\n[CO2
\n] is 1423.9 W\/m2
\n. Estimate the temperature difference, resulting from the 2x[CO2
\n]
\nclimate scenario, using the Stefan-Boltzman Law T = (E?2CO2?
\n\/4s)?
\n1\/4?
\n– T?0?
\n, where s and T0
\n1
\n EBCM is a very simple climate model originally developed for NATS 1780 (Weather and Climate).
\nAdditional information is provided via the ?Resources? below.
\n? L. I. Lumb – Sharing prohibited. Violators subject to legal and\/or academic consequences. 2
\nare the constants 5.67×10
\n-8 W\/m2?K
\n4 and 275.8 K, respectively. [3 marks]
\ni.
\n10. Rahmstorf (see ?Resources? below) estimated that temperature differences account for
\nsea-level changes according to the proportionality constant 3.4 mm\/yr per ?C. Using the
\ntemperature difference obtained in Question 9, estimate the change in sea level for the
\ntime span obtained as the answer to Question 8 – i.e., for the 2x[CO2
\n] climate scenario.
\n[3 marks]
\n11. Estimate the wavelength of maximum intensity corresponding to Earth radiating as a
\nblack body in the 2x[CO2
\n] climate scenario using Wien?s Displacement Law, ??max? = w\/T?,
\nwhere w = 2897 x 10
\n-6 m?K. [3 marks]
\n12. In which part of the EM spectrum (below) is Earth radiating under the 2x[CO2
\n] climate
\nscenario? What is the fate of this radiation? [3 marks]
\n13. Suppose the current estimate for the [CO2
\n], i.e., the answer to Question 7(a),
\ncorresponds to storage of 775 GtC in Earth?s atmosphere. (1 GtC is a GigaTon of C.) If
\nthe intention of the geoengineered sequestration of CO2
\nis to completely offset the effect
\nof the 2x[CO2
\n] climate scenario, what should be VeLaMiCarb?s target for C removal over
\nthe time frame dictated by your answer for Question 8 above? Explain. [3 marks]
\n14. It is stated that: ?The VeLaMiCarb team?s approach includes isolating the resulting
\nprecipitate (i.e., CaCO3
\n(s)), and ultimately burying it in underground vaults impermeable
\nto groundwater.? Why is groundwater isolation an important design consideration? (Hint:
\nThe rock type identified in Question 3 is highly susceptible to acid rain.) [2 marks]
\n15. Enhance your Question 4 process-flow diagram to account for the VeLaMiCarb
\napproach. [3 marks]
\n16. Does this VeLaMiCarb initiative favour the importance of a systems-based approach?
\nExplain. [2 marks]
\n17. Why might geoengineering, along the lines of the VeLaMiCarb initiative, become a
\nnecessity? Explain. [5 marks]
\nResources
\nLumb, I., NATS 1780 lecture on ?Climate and Climate Change?, Slides | Capture (start –
\n1:08:54), 24 November 2016. (Includes background, optional content on EBCM.)
\nLumb, I., NATS 1780 lecture on the ?Origin and Evolution of Earth?s Atmosphere?, Slides |
\nCapture (1:08:54 – end), 24 November 2016. (Includes background, optional content.)
\n? L. I. Lumb – Sharing prohibited. Violators subject to legal and\/or academic consequences. 3
\nNOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. Available
\nonline at https:\/\/www.esrl.noaa.gov\/gmd\/ccgg\/trends\/.
\nRahmstorf, S., A Semi-Empirical Approach to Projecting Future Sea-Level Rise, Science, 315?,
\n368-370, 2007. Available online at http:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/315\/5810\/368.
\n(Includes background, optional content.)
\nAppendix
\nVolcano Halemaumau (Hawaii) [% by volume]
\nH2O ~ 68%, CO2 ~ 13% N2 ~ 8%, SO2
\n, H2S, etc. ~11%
\nA portion of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.
\n? L. I. Lumb – Sharing prohibited. Violators subject to legal and\/or academic consequences. 4<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
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